Managing Massification: Challenges of Expansion and Equity in Chinese Higher Education

Abstract

China’s transition from elite to mass higher education over the past two decades represents one of the most rapid expansions of tertiary education in history. This article examines how the massification of Chinese higher education-marked by a gross enrollment ratio rising from under 10% in 1998 to nearly 60% in 2021-has created new opportunities and complex challenges. We review the policies and outcomes of the post-1999 enrollment expansion, highlighting its positive impact on access and human capital formation alongside persistent inequities and quality concerns. Drawing on national data and extensive literature, we find that expanded college access has benefitted millions of students and propelled China into the stage of universal higher education. At the same time, disparities by region, urban-rural origin, and socioeconomic status remain stubbornly entrenched, and the surge in graduates has intensified pressure on educational resources and labor markets. The analysis foregrounds equity issues-including rural underrepresentation and stratification of elite institutions-as central challenges in managing massification. It also discusses government initiatives aimed at mitigating inequality (such as targeted admission programs and funding reforms) and improving quality amid rapid growth. We conclude that achieving both expansion and equity requires balancing quantitative growth with policy measures to ensure inclusion and quality. China’s experience offers lessons on the promises and perils of massification for other developing higher education systems.

Affiliated Institutions

• University of Electronic Science and Technology of China CN

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